Thursday, January 30, 2020
Price Discrimination Revised Essay Example for Free
Price Discrimination Revised Essay Jane, thinking that a vacation in San Francisco to visit her parents would provide her with a much-needed rest, bought a ticket two weeks in advance for a weekend flight. She would be sitting in 11A. On the day before Janes flight, Freya gets a call from her boss, instructing her to attend the companys meeting in San Francisco. She booked a flight for the next day immediately upon getting the call. Freya sat in 11B            Freya paid $500 more than Jane for basically the same service, occupying adjacent seats. And this is a prime example of price discrimination. * * *            Price discrimination is simply the charging of different prices to different customers (Stavins, 1996, p. 3). It is characterized as price discrimination when the difference in prices are not due to difference in costs.            Scott Woolley writing for Forbes.Com simplified it further, saying that price discrimination is when an airline charge some customers more than other customers for the same (or almost the same) thing (Woolley, 1998.)            Tricia Ellis-Christensen stated that price discrimination is a widespread practice, and it doesnt necessarily imply negative discrimination.            Price discrimination is categorized into degrees depending on the market segmentation, the customers ability to pay or demand elasiticity. (Ellis-Christensen, undated).            First-degree price discrimination occurs when identical goods are sold at different prices. This is most evident in the sale of both new and used cars wherein the salesperson gauges the maximum price at which the car can be sold. This type often includes bargaining, or negotiating for a lower price (Ellis-Christensen, undated).            Second-degree price discrimination is when lower prices are charged for bulk or higher quantities (Ellis-Christensen, undated).            Third degree price discrimination requires understanding the market, and is more prevalent. This type often plays on segments of the target market. An example is discounts offered to students. (Ellis-Christensen, undated).            Conditions for Price Discrimination. Joanna Stavins further explains that for an airline or company to successfully discriminate on price, it must have some market power, to be able to charge prices above the marginal cost. Typically it has monopolized that business. Another condition is the heterogeneousity of its consumers. Lastly, product resale should be costly and impossible, to prevent arbitrage. (Stavins, 1996, p. 3)            Stavins also explained that the monopolistically competitive: conditions in air transportation business allows for price discrimination. (Stavins, 1996, p. 3)            Stavins stated that airlines differentiate between each other by offering different flight schedules and routes. Stavins also wrote that airlines attach various restrictions to cheaper tickets, making them more unattractive to consumers who give more importance to time and convenience. Meaning, a business traveler wouldnt mind paying more to ensure that he arrives on time, as opposed to a passenger on a budget.            Advantages.  In some cases, price discrimination can implement efficient prices (Armstrong, 2006 p. 6). Arvind Sahay writes that pricing products differently can increase revneues and profits by 8% and 25% (Sahay, 2007, p. 54).            Price discrimination also opens markets, as in offering ones goods at a high value market at a certain price, while giving it at a lower price at a lower value market. (Armstrong, 2006 p. 8)   This way, a business owner can reallocate demand to more suitable times while supply is limited (Sahay, 2007, p. 54).            On a more practical level, price discrimination will enable more firms to increase revenue, which can then be used for research and development. Consumers, on the other hand, will be able to benefit from lower fares (economicshelp.org, undated).            Disadvantages. On the other hand, some consumers will end up paying higher prices. Price discrimination will also cause a decline in consumer surplus. There maybe costs associated with segmenting market. Price discrimination also opens the field for predatory pricing (economicshelp.org, undated). Price Discrimination in Airlines            The increasing use of price discrimination, in all industries, is due to the new and affordable technology that most companies can install and use. Recent studies have also shown that consumers will pay different prices if the companies use the right approach (Sahay, 2007, p. 53).            In short, these days, airlines are pulling off price discrimination easily. On a purely technical level, Airlines are able to practice the third degree of price discrimination (segmentation-based), and even to some respects, the second degree of price discrimination by employing yield management tools.            Cunningham and Brady explains that airlines have been dividing their customers into groups: government vs. business vs. leisure travellers, first or economy class, etc. With the advent of the computer and I.T., airlines have gained more ability to match fares with their customers demands. (Cunningham and Brady, 2001, p. 10).            Yield Management tools allows the airline to sell the right seat to the right passenger at the right time and price, basically charging various rates for the perceived service benefit (Cunningham and Brady, 2001, p. 11).            Also, yield management allows for Ramsey pricing, which involves varying the prices for fare based on demand elasticity in relation to the marginal cost. Meaning, the more sensitive the market is to its price, the closer its price will be to the marginal cost. This explains why business market fares are higher than those who are on vacation (Cunningham and Brady, 2001, p. 11).            Since it is not easy to explain various yield management techniques of airlines, it would be best to look at practical scenarios for airline companies. Empirically, here are some examples of airline price discrimination.            Joseph Turow, writing for the Washington Posts, cites an example regarding airline Web sites that offer lower fares for first-time customers (Turrow, 2005). Technology has also made it easier for businesses such as airlines to do customer profiling. Turrow (2005) and Wooley (1998) insinuates that since businesses can now use computers and databases to store more information about a customer, it can create profiles on that customers and price accordingly. Turrow cited the case when Amazon.Com came under fire for selling the same compact disc album to different customers at varying discounts. Wooley, on the other hand, says that catalogs sent to somebody who lives in a high-end neighborhood include only one price, while the another version of the catalogs featuring the same products sent to other less-glitzy neighborhoods have discount information on them. With more and more information about the customer being easily made available, the more airlines know how to push the correct buttons and learn their ability to pay, and their willingness to pay.            Airlines also give early-bird discounts wherein those who book early get lower prices. This type of price discrimination plays on demand inelasticity.            People who book late are usually those who needs to be on the plane, and thus would be willing to pay any price just to get to where one wants to be. (Riley, 2006). Differences in ticket pricing is most reliant on supply and demand (Devlin, 2002). Fredrik Wallenberg explains that to get an advance purchase discount, one will have to book from one to three weeks in advance. (2000, p. 7)            On the other hand, SoYouWanna.Com advises that some of the cheapest plane tickets become available at the last minute. This is due to the fact that airlines typically want to fly with a full plane. Also, airline seats are seen as a perishable product, in the event that they are not used before expiration it becomes worthless (Sahay, 2007, p. 55)            Other airlines also use Saturday night stay-over as a mechanism for price discrimination. Airlines set a higher rate for business travelers who are unwilling to spend the weekend away from home (Wallenberg, 2000).            For some, airlines often reward loyal customers with a lower price on premium tickets if theyve reached a certain number of mile on their frequent-fliers programs. Keith Devlin said that he was able to buy a round trip ticket from San Francisco to Milan for a bargain price of $1000. Devlin upgraded it to business class at no cost. Devlin got the bargain beceause he has earned enough miles on Uniteds Mileage Plus. Devlin adds that a colleague who will be on the same flight at the same time, was not able to upgrade (Devlin, 2002).            US Airways has the EZ Savers Club, which is actually an automated mailing list where subscribers can get mails detailing reduced rates on specified travel dates (Bringing market discipline, 1998).            Other programs are age-dependent. Students and seniors typically get a discount on airlines.            Another form of price discrimination employed by airlines is temporary seasonal discounts for airfares that are meant to increase business. (Ellis-Christensen, undated).            Airlines have a big market with a large number of heterogenous customers, the more disparate their customers are and their behaviors, the more willing their customers would be to pay different prices (Sahay, 2007, p. 56).            Is Price Discrimination Illegal? Price discrimination may be illegal in some cases.            However, for it to be deemed illegal, it has to be seen in light of anti-competitiveness. Carl Person said that the Robinson-Patman Act protects victims of unlawful price discrimination. Persons provided the following example where in a retail store purchases the same thing from the same supplier for a much higher price. The store who bought the merchandise at a higher price would be unable to compete on price and usually loses business to its competitor (Persons, 1997).            The Federal Trade Commission clarifies that price discrimination may be used as a predatory pricing tactic to harm competition at the supplier’s level (Federal Trade Commission, undated).            This whole scenario doesnt apply to airline tickets. Imperfect Information            In a perfect world or market situation, each consumer should have perfect information about the price of services and goods. However, information problems are highly ostentatious in complex and opaque markets, where there is infrequent patronage. Markets with intermediaries or those with a time lag between the time of purchase and the expected benefits are also susceptible to the problem. The airline industry is also a primary industry for imperfect information due to its complex pricing structures (Lindley, 2007, p. 74).            Imperfect information could harm a customer because it would effectively prevent him from turning to certain potential substitutes (Lande, 2007).            Moreover, some customers might not know of the existence of an option. Some customers might not even realize that best cost-saving option (Lande, 2007).            In short, as Dominic Lindley writes, the customer may not buy the cheapest or even the most appropriate product or service; may buy a service or product that does not perform as well as planned; or may be unaware of their rights and remedies if something goes wrong (Lindley, 2007, p. 74). Conclusion            It all boils down to the fact that imperfect information could hinder a customer from making a more informed decision about what hes purchasing.            Determining the cost of an airline ticket is a complicated task. With price discrimination, it really just an interplay of demand and the customers ability to pay. Price discrimination allows businesses to optimize their operations for maximum benefits and income on their marginal costs. Airlines, among other businesses, are in a position to exploit that advantage because they satisfy all conditions needed for price discrimination.            For consumers and passengers to get the optimum value for their money, they must be vigilant. They must know their options, and choose accordingly. References  Armstrong, Mark. (2006). Price Discrimination. University College London. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://else.econ.ucl.ac.uk/papers/uploaded/222.pdf Brady, Stephen P. and Cunningham, William A . (2001). Exploring predatory pricing in the airline industry. Transportation Journal, 41(1), 5-15. Retrieved 21 April 2008 from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 124411971). Bringing market discipline to pricing. (1998, January). Businessline,1. 21 Retrieved April 2008, from ProQuest Asian Business and Reference database. (Document ID: 25422269). Devlin, Keith. (2002). The crazy math of airline ticket pricing. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_09_02.html Ellis-Christensen Tricia. What is Price Discrimination? Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-price-discrimination.htm Lande, Robert. (2007). Market Power Without A Large Market Share: The Role of Imperfect Information and other Consumer Protection Market Failures. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/hearings/single_firm/docs/222102.htm Lindley, Dominic. (2007). Imperfect information for consumers. Consumer Policy Review, 17(3), 74-79. Retrieved 21 April 2008, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 1328552571). Persons, Carl E. (1997). Do You Have an RPA Price Discrimination Claim? Retrieved on 3 April http://www.lawmall.com/rpa/rpaclaim.html Riley, Geoff. (2006) Price Discrimination. Eton College. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2-micro-price-discrimination.html Stavins, Joanna. (1996). Price Discrimination in the Airline Market: The Effect of Market Concentration. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://bosfed.org/economic/wp/wp1996/wp96_7.pdf SOYOUWANNA FIND A CHEAP PLANE TICKET? Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.soyouwanna.com/site/syws/planetix/planetix.html Sahay, Arvind. (2007). How Dynamic Pricing Leads to Higher Profits. MIT Sloan Management Review, 48(4), 53. Retrieved 21 April 2008, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 1360146151). Turow, Joseph. (2005). Have they got a deal for you. Washington Post. Retrieved on 3 April http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/18/AR2005061800070_pf.html Wallenberg, Fredrik. (2000). A study of airline pricing. School of Information Management Systems, University of California at Berkeley. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~fredrik/research/papers/InternetTravel.pdf Wooley, Scott. (1998). Mine was cheaper! Forbes.Com. Retrieved on 3 April 2008. http://www.forbes.com/global/1998/1102/0116058a.html
Wednesday, January 22, 2020
Women as a Minority Group Essay -- essays research papers
Women as a Minority Group      Women have been discriminated against since the beginning of time, as early as the first people, Adam and Eve. Eve was called the evil one, who ate fruit from the tree of knowledge. Once she had the knowledge to know right from wrong, she chose to do wrong and give the fruit to Adam. Examples like these can be shown all over history books, in stories, tales and legends across the entire world. Women have been subordinate to men in virtually all societies throughout history.      The ideology that one sex is superior to the other is called sexism. The presumption of male sexism led to patterns of prejudice and discrimination against women. These prejudices and discriminations have led to many beliefs or ideas of why women are inferior to men. They range from brain size to sexual differences, including personalities based on genitalia. Cross-cultural studies demonstrate how the socialization process and societal expectations of men and women produce variances in sex-role norms and behavior. As the realization of women as an exploited group increases, the similarity of their position to that of racial and ethnic groups becomes more apparent. Women are born into their sexual identity and are easily distinguished by physical and cultural characteristics. In addition, women now identify that they are all sufferers of an ideology (sexism) that tries to justify their inferior treatment. In all societies around the world, women are treated as if they are a minority group, just like any racial or ethnic group that is out of the norm. The justification for considering women as a minority group and the existence of sexism becomes clear through the examination of social indicators, including education, employment, and income.      Education was sex segregated for hundreds of years. Men and women went to different schools or were physically and academically separated into â€Å"coeducational†schools. Males and females had separate classrooms, separate entrances, separate academic subjects, and separate expectations. Women were only taught the social graces and morals, and teaching women academic subjects was considered a waste of time. Even after these prejudices were overcome, the education system still maintained sexism in both obvious and subtle ways. Books rein... ...nses for maternity and family medical leaves. If a woman chooses motherhood, then she must lower her occupational goals and expectations. A woman with children will fall behind a childless woman in earnings, as the childless woman goes up the corporate ladder faster. Women will then risk career advancement by having children. Also, a working mother must not only juggle a family and a career, but she must find child-care as well. Child care costs are the major reason why most women end up just quitting their jobs. The majority of a working mother’s salary goes directly to the child care provider. If women were paid equal to men, more families may be able to pay for child care expenses and working mothers could continue to work and get ahead. Women have been treated unequally since the beginning of time. Just recently have things began to change for the better for women and the future of our society. The increase in women’s equality rights will take time, but some day women and men will be treated equally. This cannot happen until each of us is able to look at a person and just see another individual, not a male or a female, white or black, rich or poor†¦ a person as just a person.
Tuesday, January 14, 2020
Junk Food Essay
Basically, it’s anything that is high in calories but lacking in nutrition. Hamburgers, chips, chocolate bars and hot dogs fall in this category. Pizzas, although they can have vegetable and cheese toppings, are also included as they contain a lot of fat. Obviously, a diet of junk food is not the best thing for your health, particularly as it is highly saturated fat. In 1993, the Journal of the National Cancer Institute reported this type of fat to be associated with greater risk of cancer. Apart from the risk of cancer, another side effect of consuming highly fattening junk food is that you are likely to gain weight. This is especially true because you tend to eat more, as junk food is less satisfying and lower in vital nutrients than healthier food. The best advice, then, for those who cannot live without their hamburgers or chocolate bars, is to limit the amount of junk food they eat. Another alarming thing about people’s lifestyle today is that while the amount of junk food we eat has increased, the amount of exercise we do has actually decreased. Exercise plays an important part in keeping the body fit and healthy; it helps to control our weight and, if taken regularly, can also decrease our chances of having a heart attack in later life. What is more, you don’t have to exercise much to gain visible benefits. Twenty minutes three times a week is all that is necessary. Even though people nowadays are actually far more aware of the importance of exercise and a healthy diet then they were a few years ago. The new unhealthy way of life is surprisingly popular. Recent research has shown that young French people, who prefer burgers and chips to rich gourmet dishes, tend to become overweight. Weight gained in adolescence is extremely hard to lose in later life, so researchers are predicting that the new French generations are not going to be admired for their slim figures as the French have traditionally been. Researchers suggest that the new generation will be much more likely to suffer from heart and liver disease. What can’t be emphasized enough is the fact that a balanced diet and regular exercise bring significant health benefits. You can gain anything from glowing skin to an all-round feeling of good health. One way or another, the vast majority of people seem to be missing out on this, due mainly to the pressures of modern life. Ironically, if they were to make time to exercise and improve their eating habits, they would probably find that they were far better equipped to deal with their stressful lifestyles than they are now.
Monday, January 6, 2020
Germany s War And The Holocaust Disputed Histories
Julia Katzman December 4, 2014 History of War Professor Nolan Book Review #2 Evaluating History Bartov, Omer. Germany s War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003. Kindle. For decades, historians and citizens have struggled to grasp the relationship between the German army and the mass murders committed during the Holocaust. These questions have persisted since the concentration camps were liberated and the extent of the atrocities committed during World War II were revealed. Omer Bartov provides a myriad of scholarly interpretations in his fifth book, Germany’s War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories. In this work, Bartov provides a historical and scholarly discourse on the German army and its institutionalization of mass murder. Overall, Bartov’s book is well supported through his extensive use of secondary material and his ability to appropriately characterize specific nations’ reactions to historical Holocaust assertions. However, Bartov’s lack of primary documents, exaggerated critiques, and organizational flaws detract from his expressed thesis. These deficiencies cause his work to read more as a disjointed series of book reviews, rather than a single, unified statement. Omer Bartov separates his analysis into three different sections, each of which comments upon prominent issues in Holocaust scholarship. His first section discusses the nature of the German army on the Eastern Front during World War II, whereShow MoreRelatedHolocaust Denial and Distortion Essay2228 Words  | 9 Pagesâ€Å"One is astonished in the study of history at the recurrence of the idea that evil must be forgotten, distorted, skimmed over. 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Saturday, December 28, 2019
Threat Assessment Ranks Cyber Related Vulnerabilities
The 2014 Worldwide Threat Assessment ranks cyber-related vulnerabilities as the number one homeland security threat against the United States. In addition to cyber threats within the nation, Russia and China continue to hold views substantially divergent from the United States on the meaning and intent of international cyber security. Also stated within the 2013 Worldwide Threat Assessment is North Korea as they are becoming a tier one threat to the United States. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition has been seen as vulnerable and is noted as a severe threat to the nation’s critical infrastructure. James R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence, states, â€Å"Critical infrastructure, particularly the Industrial Control Systems (ICS)†¦show more content†¦If the America’s power grid were to suffer a major attack, it could have cascading effects that would impact other primary areas of the infrastructure, including telecommunications, water, oil and gas systems. 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Friday, December 20, 2019
The World Trade Center, Flight 93 And The Conspiracies...
Pratt Institute The World Trade Center, Flight 93 and The Conspiracies Surrounding 9/11 Dana Weiss World Civilization II/CH 400 Jeffrey Surovell November 22, 2016 History has been defined time and time again by powerful people or groups shaping the social narrative of influential events. Made most famous by Winston Churchill, the notion of history being written by victors pays no more relevant context than the events surrounding the morning of September 11th, 2001. There is no doubting the historical significance of this morning, â€Å"The horrifying atrocities of September 11 are something quite new in world affairs†¦ this is the first time since the War of 1812 that the national territory has been under attack, or even threatened,†(Chomsky, 11). As with any major event in human history there have been a handful of explanations, most notably from the American government itself, and yet since the moment the first plane collided into the World Trade Center as many questions as answers have arisen from the rubble. This paper will explore a variety of conspiracy theories that have surfaced due to contradictory scientific evidence and government influence regarding the World Trade Center buildings and Flight 93. First, we will examine the meaning of a conspiracy theory itself. 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Thursday, December 12, 2019
Epidemiology Persistent Psychological Disorder
Question: Discuss about theEpidemiologyfor Persistent Psychological Disorder. Answer: Introduction Schizophrenia is an acute and persistent psychological disorder, which influences the thought process, feelings and behavioral pattern of a person. They seem to lose touch and connection from the reality. The symptoms of Schizophrenia are extremely disabling. The signs generally emerge within the age group of 16 to 30 years (Ripke et al., 2014). The symptoms can be categorized as positive, negative and cognitive. The positive symptoms are the frantic behavioral patterns that are not commonly seen in healthy subjects. They include hallucination, delusion, unusual thinking pattern and restricted body movements (Ripke et al., 2014). The negative symptoms are further drastic and results in memory impairment. The patients have reduced pleasure in day-to-day life, reduced expression of thoughts and feelings, difficulty in sustaining and starting actions and reduced speech. The cognitive symptoms are sometimes precised in some people while in others they are serious. The symptoms include la ck of comprehensibility and attention. Schizophrenia has several predisposing factors that contribute to the development of the disease. They can be due to genetic inheritance and several environmental factors like virus exposure, lack of nutrition before birth, problems during the gestation period and delivery. The other factors include psychosocial determinants, difference in brain structure and chemistry (Stadnick, Haine-Schlagel Martinez, 2016). Obstetrics or obstetric events are related to the process of childbirth. The obstetric events are increasing the incidence and chances of schizophrenia. The epidemiological studies have investigated the incidence rate and frequency of the disease across a wide range of population and geography (Beary, Hodgson Wildgust, 2012). The assignment vividly discusses the rationale of the study, overview of a peer reviewed article and review of few other related articles to assess the associations between obstetric events and risk of developing Scizophrenia. Overview of a Peer Reviewed Article According to a Danish national register based study, a nested case control study was made to examine the obstetric events associated with the risk of developing Schizophrenia. 1039 subjects were taken as samples who were not previously contacted by the Danish Psychiatric services that were under the ICD-8 or ICD-10 diagnosis of the disease and 24,826 subjects were taken as controls. The obstetric factors, family history of psychiatry, sociological and economical factors along with demographic determinants were the considered risk factors. The chance of developing Schizophrenia was found to be associated with a range of obstetric events. The incidence rate ratio was 2.08, with 95% confidence interval at 1.0 and 4.4 in maternal non-attendance at antenatal appointments. The incidence rate ratio was 1.51, with 95% confidence interval at 1 and 2.2 in the duration of gestational period or below. The incidence rate ratio was 8.2, with 95% confidence interval at 1.4 and 48.8 in the maternal influenza. The incidence rate ratio was 2.72, with confidence interval of 955 at 1.0 and 7.3 in preeclampsia. In cases of threatened premature delivery, the incidence rate ratio was 2.39, with 95% confidence interval at 1.4 and 4.1. The incidence rate ratio was found to be 2.43 with 95% confidence interval at 1.1 and 5.6 in cases where hemorrhage occurred during the delivery of the baby. In cases where the babies have been extracted manually, the incidence interval ratio was found to be 2.15, with confidence interval of 95% at 1.1 and 4.4. In cases of maternal sepsis during childbirth and puerperium, the incidence rate ratio was found to be 2.91, with confidence interval of 95% at 1.1 and 7.9. Univariate models and multivariate models were used for estimations of the interaction between the several obstetric factors. The various criteria like family history, demographic factors, age, and mothers citizenship were used for the analysis and interpretation of results. Significant intera ctions were not witnessed in case of either of the models. It was finally stated that a strong association might be found between risk of developing the disease and factors. The factors are hemorrhage, pre-eclampsia and rupturing of membrane during and prior to the labor period (Dalman et al., 1999). The risk of developing the disease increased significantly on exposure to pre-eclampsia, hypoxia might develop during delivery and was found to be associated with hemorrhage. Obstetric complications like pre-matured birth, pre term delivery, anemia of the mother and manual extraction are the other associated factors that increase the probability of its occurrence. The study did not find any significant or prominent interaction among the various obstetric factors and sex or family history of psychosis. However, the data obtained during the conduct of the experimental study indicated that there was an association between a range of obstetric determinants and likelihood of developing Schiz ophrenia. The determinants of obstetric events were prematurity, infections to the mother, maternal behavioral pattern and hypoxia indicators. The association was found by making fewer adjustments with the most possible confounding factors (Byrne et al., 2007). Critical Appraisal on Observed Association Between Exposure and Outcome using Hierarchy of Evidence According to a study, association between the obstetric events and chances of development of Schizophrenia was found. 538 children were taken as case with Autism Spectrum disorder, which is a form of Schizophrenia, 163 of them was taken who had developmental delays. 421 individuals were taken as developmental controls. The information related to exposure were taken via telephonic interviews. The outcomes were confirmed clinically. It was found that neither of the Autism Spectrum Disorder and developmental delays were found to be associated with influenza rather they were found to have associations with maternal fever during the gestation period. The association between maternal fever (exposure) and the disorder or delays (outcomes) was due to the biological mechanism. When bacteria or virus invade the human body, leukocytes respond by stimulation of the inter-leukins and interferon. This results in elevation of the temperature. However, there are multiple pathways for induction of th e fever by interleukins. It had been reported that associations had been found between maternal infections and risk of neurological developmental disorders (Zerbo et al., 2013). A study was made on obstetric complications and schizophrenia. The study compared the incidence of obstetric events among children of such mothers who had schizophrenia spectrum psychoses and the control groups included normal healthy children. The study also investigated the relation between the obstetric complications and mortality rate of children with such psychiatric disorders. The females who were born within the period of 1916-1948 were monitored who were admitted for the first time in the Helsinki Psychiatric hospitals. 271 cases and 242 controls were selected for the study. The Cox regression model were applied for assessment and analysis of the exposure and outcome association. It was reported at the end of the study that the hazard rate ratio was 3.73 with confidence interval of 95% at 1.27 and 11.01 in case of maternal infections. In the cases of hypertension during the pregnancy period, the hazard rate ratio was found to be 4.09 with confidence interval of 95% at 1.15 an d 14.58. In cases of placental abnormalities, the ratio was found to be 4.09 with confidence interval of 95% at 1.59 and 10.49. Hence, it was assessed and concluded that the risk of developing Schizophrenia developed with the associated obstetric complications.. It implies that there is a modest association between exposure and outcome (Suvisaari et al., 2013). According to a case-control study, the obstetric complications along with other factors like dysfunctional motor activities and others were associated with risk of developing Schizophrenia. The case group consisted of the subjects diagnosed with Schizophrenia and control groups were selected from the healthy population. The interactions between the obstetric factors and risk of development of the disease were found to be strong. However, the lack of sufficient prospective data was considered as the limitations of the study (Laurens et al., 2015). According to a study, it was found that the psychological state of the mother could have negative impact on the pregnancy and the fetal health. The study measured the exposure levels of a selected population with similar complications and risk factors rather than assessment at the individual level. The studies examined that the maternal stress was linked with the outcomes. The off springs were diagnosed with the disease and the interactions had been found between the obstetric events and the outcomes of the disease (Kenny, Everard Khashan, 2014). A study analyzed the association between the obstetric events and later development of Schizophrenia. A cohort study was made in Australia, which examined the stress full experience of the mothers during the pregnancy period and occurrence of the disease in the off springs in later phase of life. The results of the study showed that the prenatal stressful incidents had indirect relationship with behavioral problems in the children. There was no such interactions observed in cases where the individuals were selected within the age group of 5. It was found that above 5 years the children showed some levels of behavioral changes and were diagnosed with Psychiatric disorders. The study further confirmed the part played by the stressful prenatal period by further analysis of the children at early developmental stages (Betts et al., 2014). A study examined the associations between perinatal factors and risk of development of psychiatric disorders like Schizophrenia. The study involved 56 subjects with psychological disorder related to the perinatal complications. The study was based on case-control design. The sample cases were selected from a national registered sample that was assessed during the period of 1988-2000. The controls were selected from healthy population who had no psychiatric diagnosis. The statistical logistic regression technique was used to compare the exposure and outcomes in the case and control groups. It was found that the asphyxia and delivery complications might contribute to the risk of developing the psychiatric disorder. The other important finding of the study was that the disorder was dependant on the selected control population. It reported significant associations of the disease with low birth weight, premature birth. However, the study had limitations of using selected sample with the d isease. It can be implied that there were strong associations of the disease found to be linked with obstetric factors and genetic factors (Fazel et al., 2012). According to a study, Schizophrenia is the outcome of early neurological developmental abnormalities, which involves obstetric events. The study was based on case-control design. The study involved 67 healthy participants and 29 patients with the disease. The assessments were made for duration of 0 to 8 weeks. Assessments of clinical aspects as well as neurological status were made for two hours. Obstetric complications were assessed in the study based on national health registry. It was assessed on the bases of maternal health prior to the birth of the babies as well as their mental and physical health status during the gestation period along with other associated obstetric complications. It was found that poor neurological developments are due to obstetric complications to some extent. The gestational length was the parameter to be assessed, which showed that the lengthy gestational period contributed to the development of the disease (Teigset, Mohn Rund, 2016). According to a study, environmental factors of the prenatal and perinatal aspects elevated the chances of developing Schizophrenia. The study involved 457 participants. It was reported that the obstetric events as birth weight of the babies was a contributing factor to the risk of schizophrenia. The high birth weight of more than 400 grams was found to be associated with the higher risks of the disease (Wegelius et al., 2015). A study analyzed the association of genetic inheritance, maternal stress and such obstetric events with schizophrenia. Genetic risk factors as well as environmental factors were taken into consideration for assessing the association between the exposure and outcome. It was found that the prenatal and factors related to family setup was associated with schizophrenia (Walder et al., 2014). According to a study, it was investigated that there were associations between psychological disorders in parents and risk of developing schizophrenia. The study involved 10,526 subjects. It was a cohort-control study. The reports said that high weight of the babies at birth and higher levels of literacy among the mothers were the contributing factor to the disease development (Keskinen et al., 2013). According to a study, restrictions in the growth of fetus were associated with the risk of developing schizophrenia. It was a cohort study based on population. The odds ratio or the incidence rate of the study regarding the disease showed that the risk of the disease increased proportionally with decrease in the birth weight. It was identified that among 15,622 pre-eclampsia births, 49 people were diagnosed with schizophrenia. However, further investigations could be carried regarding the associations between fetal growth retardation and developing the disease (Eide et al., 2013). A study was conducted to examine the associations between psychological disorders like schizophrenia and obstetric events. The obstetric complication considered in this study was delivery, pre and post birth complications. It was based on a case-control design. 124 children and adults were involved in the study. The results of the study stated that the children and adults with mothers having obstetric complications were at higher risk of developing schizophrenia (Ketzer et al., 2012). According to a study, demographic factors and habits like drug use during gestational period were associated with the onset of the disease of schizophrenia. It was found that use of drugs like cannabis and cocaine were associated with the outbreak of schizophrenia. It was reported that strict monitoring, delivery and family history were contributing to the development of schizophrenia (Rubio-Abadal et al., 2015). A study examined the extent to which obstetric events were associated with schizophrenia in adolescent patients. The study involved 508 adults within the age group of 12 to 17 years. The study also accounted for the sex differences. It was found that more males were diagnosed with the disease as compared to females. The disease was found to be associated with the obstetric complications (Lukkari et al., 2012). Conclusion Schizophrenia is a severe psychological disorder, which results in restricted movement and changes in behavioral pattern. The assignment critically assessed the associations of various obstetric factors with psychiatric disorders. The conclusions drawn from the selected peer reviewed article is that the development of the disease was closed related to the obstetric events like preterm birth, premature delivery, manual extraction, bleeding during the delivery of the baby, maternal infection. The other factors were also found to be related with the risk factors of the disease. It was found that the risk increased when the exposure was extended to difficult and unfavorable birth conditions and adverse pregnancy. The other reviewed articles focused on the other aspects of the obstetric events like the mental state of the pregnant mothers and stressful events during the pregnancy period. It can be concluded from the findings of the mentioned articles that the factors like psychological st atus of the mother could result in development of Schizophrenia among the children in later parts of life. The interactions of the factors with the causative outcome were found to be strong. A modest association between the disease and obstetric factors were found. Hence, it can be concluded that the occurrence of Schizophrenia is strongly related with the obstetric complications. References: Beary, M., Hodgson, R., Wildgust, H. J. (2012). A critical review of major mortality risk factors for all-cause mortality in first-episode schizophrenia: clinical and research implications.Journal of Psychopharmacology,26(5 suppl). Betts, K. S., Williams, G. M., Najman, J. M., Scott, J., Alati, R. (2014). Exposure to stressful life events during pregnancy predicts psychotic experiences via behaviour problems in childhood.Journal of psychiatric research,59. Byrne, M., Agerbo, E., Bennedsen, B., Eaton, W. W., Mortensen, P. B. (2007). Obstetric conditions and risk of first admission with schizophrenia: a Danish national register based study.Schizophrenia research,97(1). Eide, M. G., Moster, D., Irgens, L. M., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Stoltenberg, C., Skjaerven, R., ... Abel, K. (2013). Degree of fetal growth restriction associated with schizophrenia risk in a national cohort.Psychological medicine,43(10). Fazel, S., Bakiyeva, L., Cnattingius, S., Grann, M., Hultman, C. M., Lichtenstein, P., Geddes, J. R. (2012). Perinatal risk factors in offenders with severe personality disorder: a population-based investigation.Journal of personality disorders,26(5). Geddes, J. R., Lawrie, S. M. (1995). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis.The British journal of psychiatry,167(6). Geddes, J. R., Verdoux, H., Takei, N., Lawrie, S. M., Bovet, P., Eagles, J. M., ... Stber, G. (1999). Schizophrenia and complications of pregnancy and labor: an individual patient data meta-analysis.Schizophrenia bulletin,25(3). Kenny, L. C., Everard, C., Khashan, A. S. (2014). Maternal Stress and in Utero Programming. InHormones, Intrauterine Health and Programming(pp. 41-55). Springer International Publishing. Keskinen, E., Miettunen, J., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Mki, P., Isohanni, M., Jskelinen, E. (2013). Interaction between parental psychosis and risk factors during pregnancy and birth for schizophreniaThe Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort study.Schizophrenia research,145(1). Ketzer, C. R., Gallois, C., Martinez, A. L., Rohde, L. A., Schmitz, M. (2012). Is there an association between perinatal complications and ttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-inattentive type in children and adolescents?.Revista brasileira de psiquiatra,34(3). Laurens, K. R., Luo, L., Matheson, S. L., Carr, V. J., Raudino, A., Harris, F., Green, M. J. (2015). Common or distinct pathways to psychosis? A systematic review of evidence from prospective studies for developmental risk factors and antecedents of the schizophrenia spectrum disorders and affective psychoses.BMC psychiatry,15(1). Lukkari, S., Hakko, H., Herva, A., Pouta, A., Riala, K., Rsnen, P. (2012). Exposure to obstetric complications in relation to subsequent psychiatric disorders of adolescent inpatients: specific focus on gender differences.Psychopathology,45(5). Ripke, S., Neale, B. M., Corvin, A., Walters, J. T., Farh, K. H., Holmans, P. A., ... Pers, T. H. (2014). Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci.Nature,511(7510).Ripke, S., Neale, B. M., Corvin, A., Walters, J. T., Farh, K. H., Holmans, P. A., ... Pers, T. H. (2014). Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci.Nature,511(7510), 421. Rubio-Abadal, E., Ochoa, S., Barajas, A., Baos, I., Dolz, M., Sanchez, B., ... GENIPE Group. (2015). Birth weight and obstetric complications determine age at onset in first episode of psychosis.Journal of psychiatric research,65. Stadnick, N. A., Haine-Schlagel, R., Martinez, J. I. (2016). Using Observational Assessment to Help Identify Factors Associated with Parent Participation Engagement in Community-Based Child Mental Health Services. InChild Youth Care Forum(pp. 1-14). Springer US. Suvisaari, J. M., Taxell-Lassas, V., Pankakoski, M., Haukka, J. K., Lnnqvist, J. K., Hkkinen, L. T. (2013). Obstetric complications as risk factors for schizophrenia spectrum psychoses in offspring of mothers with psychotic disorder.Schizophrenia bulletin,39(5). Teigset, C. M., Mohn, C., Rund, B. R. (2016). Gestational length affects neurocognition in early-onset schizophrenia.Psychiatry Research,244. Walder, D. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., Tsuang, M. T., Seidman, L. J. (2014). Genetic liability, prenatal health, stress and family environment: risk factors in the Harvard Adolescent Family High Risk for schizophrenia study.Schizophrenia research,157(1). Wegelius, A., Pankakoski, M., Tomppo, L., Lehto, U., Lnnqvist, J., Suvisaari, J., ... Hennah, W. (2015). An interaction between NDE1 and high birth weight increases schizophrenia susceptibility.Psychiatry research,230(2).
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